Well, we’ve all seen the advert, but that’s not what I want to talk about, so get that out of your head straight away. No, let’s think about what many call the “Queen of Arts” - namely painting.

Have you ever wandered around a huge Art Gallery and marvelled at the works by Tintoretto, Raphael, Constable or any master painter who has produced huge canvasses? Then again, we have many fine examples of beautiful artwork in cameos and miniatures. In fact, in all sizes between these two extremes the evidence of creative genius can be found down through the ages.

However, it’s patently obvious that the correlation between size and creative genius is poor. Mere size on the premise, “never mind the quality feel the width” is not the prime element of a masterpiece. Yes we are fascinated by the Sistine Chapel, for example, by the sheer scale of the paintings, but it’s the genius of the painter that draws the eye. It’s also true though that the artist tugs at our heartstrings by the wealth of detail that working in a large format permits.

In the same way, large format and medium format cameras have traditionally been the working tools of professional photographers for many, many years. In a previous article, I suggested that there would always be room for film, especially for users of the larger formats.

Now, we get to the nub of the matter, because in digital parlance, the wealth of detail evident in the larger formats is expressed as the size of the file. Unlike physical dimensions which cannot be changed once the work has been committed to the recording medium, be it film or indeed canvas size, the digital file is not so restricted.

Of course, when image size is changed from the original during, say, image compression, there is generally a loss in quality e.g. jpeg Even the use of a lossless transformation doesn’t add anything to the image, it merely preserves what’s there.

However, there is a revolutionary item of image manipulation software that does totally “change the picture” It comes as a Photoshop plug-in with Photoshop 6.0 or higher and it’s called “Genuine Fractals” and here is what the originators claim,

By saving your digital image with this package as a very small stn file, you can create lossless files of up to 70Mb and beyond. After saving and re-opening this file in Photoshop, Genuine Fractal kicks in and you can easily produce files of a specified size

I was stunned by this software and began to wonder what the impact might be for both digital photographers and medium/large format professionals. Of course, as already stated, this increased size does NOT put extra information into the shot. There again, neither does making a 67 dupe of a 35mm slide improve image quality and many photographers still do that when submitting to libraries.

Digital photographers may get even more benefits by beefing up the file size using Genuine Fractals, before printing out enlargements. This could be very useful for Wedding Photographers who want the convenience of using a digital camera, but are unhappy about the quality of enlargements often requested. Using Genuine Fractals may save time effort and money by eliminating the need for a film backup camera.

On the other hand, it may be that Genuine Fractals may produce the best result with photos captured from film and then scanned, because noise in the original image is not removed when enlarged, in fact it will be more obvious. This means that mid-range digital camera shots are likely to fare worse on enlargment than film shots captured with 10 million pixels+

With a new version Genuine Fractals 3.5 just released, it could be worth a test and could be a worthwhile investment too. So, if you want to explore this a little more, get a copy of Amateur Photographer for 23 October 2004 and read their review of this exciting software.

You can get a free test copy of the software itself from this link: http://www.dcp-systems.co.uk

Why bother with a medium format camera if 35mm caressed by this Software will do instead? Oh I know I’ll get lectures from purists for even suggesting something so daft, given superior lenses and better optics, but for some people that may be just overkill. If this article has opened up the possibility of a better working method for some freelances, that’s all that matters.

So don’t please run around telling your mates that size does not matter and that I’ve assigned medium format cameras to the dustbin of history. No, I’m just shining the spotlight on that funny old coin digital/film and giving it a flick in the air. Who knows how it will land? At least I’ve got a 50-50 chance of being right!

About The Author

One of a series of articles by Robert Hartness, successful freelance and author of an hotlinked, flip-over, e-book, published on the web in October 2004. It offers a step-by-step guide to those on the threshold of freelance photography and is illustrated with 40+ published photographs. Acclaimed as a great reference source for serious freelancers. More information and order link - http://www.cashfromyourcamera.com Press Release: http://www.prweb.com/releases/2004/10/prweb168698.php

Here’s how to format a hard drive (Legal Stuff: We are not responsible for any damages, lost data, or anything of the sort)…

If you have a computer, you surely know what a hard drive is. If you don’t have one, or simply don’t know what a hard drive is, then this article will begin with a short description of the hard drive. Then we will cover formating a hard drive…

Step 1: What Is A Hard Disk Drive?

A hard disk drive in computing is a type of storage device made up of hard disk platters, a spindle, read and write heads read and write arms, electrical motors, and integrated electronics contained inside an airtight enclosure.

Now you know what the hard drive is. Let’s stick to the point and start with the information on the title of this article. How to format a hard disk drive….

Step 2…

First of all, you should have a reason if you really want to learn how to format a hard drive. But don’t forget that formating a hard drive does NOT permanently delete your data!

Of course, when you format your hard drive you think that the data is really deleted, but that is not the case.

The fact is that the data you have "deleted" can be restored. Nonetheless, you should not experiment with formatting a hard drive because you never know what may happen. Of course, it also depends on the software you use, for example, there are such products that will permanently delete the data you want and then you can continue the process of how to format a hard drive.

Step 3…

In fact there is nothing so difficult in it. You first need to decide what operating system you intend to load after formating a hard drive.

It is best and easiest to use a boot disk for that Operating System, such as MS Dos6.2 or Windows95b or Windows98SE. You will need the proper Windows95/98 boot disk in order to load these operating systems on the computer, else it will reject loading due to the wrong Operating System on the computer.

Step 4…

Then you will have to insert your boot disk in the floppy drive and start the computer.

Once the system has completed booting and an A: prompt appears. You will need to type format C: /s and then press Enter. The function of this command is to tell the system to format your "C" drive and when it is finished to copy the system files to the drive.

The "/s" switches for "System". You can format a different drive this way by using a different drive letter.

Step 5…

After that you will see on the screen the following text: "WARNING, ALL DATA ON NON-REMOVABLE DISK DRIVE C: WILL BE LOST! Proceed with Format (Y/N)?" and if you really want to continue, type [Y] and then press Enter.

Your screen should display the size of your drive and a countdown in percentage of formatting completed. Depending on your computer’s speed and the size of the drive it can take from a few minutes to over 15 minutes.

When it reaches 100% complete, you will see a new message: FORMAT COMPLETE. SYSTEM TRANSFERRED. This message is to indicate that the files required to boot your computer from the hard drive have been copied from the floppy to the hard drive.

The computer can now boot from the hard drive without a boot disk in the floppy drive.

The last message that will appear on your screen is the following: "Volume label (11 characters, ENTER for none)?" You can either press any key to continue, or simply to press Enter. And now, you can finally begin to load your Operating System.

Keep in mind that you can receive an error message, which says "insufficient memory to load system files". If you do receive such message, do not worry. It is caused by the lack of a memory manager loaded at boot and your PC can only access the first 1mg of ram memory.

You can handle this situation with two options. The first one is to omit the /s switch when formatting. You should do it by typing this: FORMAT C: and then press Enter. Then when the format is complete, manually add the system files to your hard drive by using this command: SYS C: and press Enter again.

The second solution is to load a memory manager in order to overcome this issue. If you don’t have any you can easily download one from one of the million sites on the Internet.

Step 6…

You see, we have finally reached the end of How To Format A Hard Drive. and consequently – the end of this article. Now you surely know how to format a hard drive. But, once again, don’t play with the commands if you are not serious about formating a hard drive.

Even if the data is restorable you may do something wrong to your computer. That is why, you should be careful! And now, good luck!

©2004-2005 Brian Maroevich

About The Author

Brian Maroevich is founder of Cheap-Computers-Guild.com. Brian is also an author, marketing consultant, computer enthusiast, and athlete. Email: brian@cheap-computers-guild.com

DVD CD ROMs have become predominantly the most used CD drive for desktop and notebook computers. They are very reliable and now come as a standard in most computers. If you are looking for a laptop then make sure it has a DVD ROM, this will give you extra speed for normal Cds, and you will be able to watch your favourite DVDs while you travel.

I often sit up late watching DVDs on my laptop after a hard working day.

If you are interested in Desktop computers, then the DVD drive will enable you to watch your favourite DVDs on your monitor. I currently have a 21-inch monitor and a 5.1 computer surround kit. This brings DVDs to life and acts just like a home cinema system, however the quality is even better.

Most DVD ROMs will come in speeds ranging from 4 to 10 speed. This is more than adequate to watch the latest DVDs, play the latest games, and use and install the latest software. Normal CDs can only perform at a certain speed, and it is a lot lower than what the DVD ROM offers. I hope you have a better understanding of why DVD ROMs are now used more than a normal CD nowadays. It is basically all part of bringing a home entertainment system at the best quality closer to everyone.

This is one of the unique articles posted weekly on http://www.computer-and-printer-reviews.com.

About The Author

John Gibb is currently the webmaster of several guide websites. http://www.computer-and-printer-reviews.com is his latest addition.

From throwing our unnecessary files, to defragmenting, from partitions to formats-learn how to keep your hard disk in top shape

The hard disk is the place where all your programs and data are stored. If the hard disk Stops working you could end up losing all your data. What we’ll do here is take you on. A quick tour of the different things you need to know about it, so you can keep it working smoothly.

What is the hard disk?

The hard disk is a magnetic mass storage device installed in special bays within the system unit. The hard disk could do compared to a large cupboard having several shelves

With different items being neatly arranged and stored on each self. The hard disk stored all the data you need to store on your PC-the operating system (for example, Windows),

Software program (for example an office suit), business or household applications and data, games, e-mail message, address books and so on.

A hard disk off the assembly line is just a mass of magnetic media. The magnetic surface of the hard disk has to be structured into specific areas where data can be stored properly, a process known as formatting. When you buy a new computer, the system comes with a formatted hard disk.

A hard disk needs to be divided into partitions before it can be used. The hard disk on a newly purchased computer comes configured with a single large partitions, the primary partition (C: in My Computer) and an extended partition, which may be further subdivided into logical partitions (D: E: and so on in My Computer) if required. Partitioning makes the storage of data more efficient and reduces the access time to retrieve data.

The storage capacity of hard disk has increased by leaps and bounds since IBM XT’s first 10 MB hard disk. Nowadays, 10GB is the entry level and 17 GB is common. The hard disk communicates with a PC’s motherboard through an expansion card or a disk interface card.

How does it wok?

The disk is formatted to divide its magnetic surface into concentric circular paths called tracks (these are like the grooves on a phonograph record) and wedge-shaped slices called sectors. Data is stored in the form of a file or groups of disk sector called clusters. A disk drive locates data by moving its magnetic read-write head to specific track within a specific sector.

When a new file is created in a freshly formatted hard disk, it is assigned cluster numbers in a sequential order. If the file is expanded, then the first available clusters are assigned. When file is deleted, their cluster numbers are simply marked as available. Over course of time, when files grow in size to require additional cluster or are deleted, the perfectly ordered sequence of clusters gets disturbed, a process known as fragmentation.

Partitioning the hard disk

Partitioning divides a large hard disk into smaller virtual-not physical-hard disk or partitions, leading to an efficient utilization of space and boosting your PC’s performance. Partitioning could be very useful in following circumstances:

1-One PC, several users-If several persons have to work on the same PC, partitions could be assigned for each of them so that each person has his or her own “working space.” This could be useful in home setting too, where you could have separate partitions for your spouse, children’s games, business applications and data and so on.

2-Work on multiple operating systems-You may want to work on more than one operating system on your PC, for example Win98, Linux and Windows95. (Maybe you have applications that work perfectly in Win95 but suddenly crashed in Win98). You can keep these various operating systems safely on the same hard disk by installing them in separate partitions.

Partitioning Tools There’re several partitioning tools available for your hard drive. Two of the most popular ones are:

1-PartitionMagic Version 4.o for Windows95 and 98-Partition Magic, from Power Quest is a useful and powerful partitioning program. It effortlessly creates, moves, converts and resizes partitions on your hard disk without the necessity of reformatting the disk of erasing valuable data.

2-FDISK- is a freely available partitioning utility that runs in the DOS environment. Its greatest UPS is that it is available for free. It is cumbersome to use and also requires formatting of the hard disk (perhaps its biggest drawback).

Formatting a hard disk

As with most mechanical devices, prolonged use of the hard disk results in inevitable wear and tear and malfunction. Repeated adding and deleting of files takes its toll on the hard disk and you may get disk error, including the notorious “fatal error” of Windows. This is an indication that you may need to re-format your hard disk to have it working properly again.

However, before deciding to re-format the disk it may be worthwhile to try out other alternative-

1-Run Disk Defragmenter

2-Use a cleanup shareware programs such asregclean.exe, available for download.

However, if after trying out these alternatives, you continue to get fatal error message, then you probably need to format your hard disk.

The procedure of formatting is simple enough but has to be done carefully. When you format the hard disk, all the data on the disk is lost-Windows operating system, software programs, business applications data, games, e-mails messages. In short everything.

How to do the formatting

Windows 95

1- Double-click on My Computer icon. Then click the icon for the drive you want to format. (e. g. C:)

2- On the File menu, click Format and follow the instructions.

Remember that you can not format a disk if there are files open on that disk. If the disk has been compressed, use Drivespace or other compression to format the disk.

Windows 98

1- Click Start, click Shutdown, click Restart, and then click on OK.

2- Press and hold the CTRL key until the Microsoft Windows 98 Startup Menu appears.

3- Select Command prompt only and press Enter.

4- At the C:prompt, type format C: and press ENTER.

5- Follow the instruction on the screen.

After formatting you’re left with a blank hard disk with more space then before. The next step is to restore the programs you need on your disk.

1- First reinstall Windows and then application programs you use.

2- Restore your backups into appropriate files. If you use a Zip drive or a CD-writer, these need to be installed first.

3- Reinstall all drivers for the printer, modem or other peripherals.

Do the defrag

A file on your disk may not be stored all in one place or cluster. For example, if you create a Word document and make changes to it at a later date, the change may get saved in a different cluster from the original file. The more often you make changes to a file, the more disorganized the cluster becomes, and the disk becomes fragmented. This makes the magnetic head that reads and writes data to and from the disk, works harder to retrieve the entire file. Fragmentation of hard drive reduces the storage efficiency and then access time for retrieving information.

The process of defragging helps to rearrange the files and unused space on your hard disk so that programs run faster.

Before Defragging, it may be a good idea to check how much of your hard drive is fragmented. You can do this by running ScanDisk. Empty the temp folders and Recycle Bin before defragging.

Windows 95 and Windows 98-: Open the Start Menu, choose Programs, choose Accessories, and choose System Tools and click on Disk Defragmenter.

You defragging schedule will depend on how much you use the PC. A good rule of the thumb is to defrag every two weeks.

Make sure all your files are closed and then you have turned of the screensaver also.

Spring Cleaning

No more hard disk space left? Getting disk error or illegal operations? It may be time to clean up your hard disk. A few spring cleaning pointers to help you out.

1- Toss out unwanted applications-: check out all the software applications you have loaded on the PC. Delete the old applications if you have installed newer versions. Go to the Control Panel’s Add/Remove program option and uninstall those applications you don’t need.

2- Run ScanDisk-: the ScanDisk option in Windows is very useful application which fixes problem like lost clusters, invalid directory entries and physical disk errors. Run ScanDisk once a month.

Go to start, choose Programs, choose Accessories, and choose System Tools and click on ScanDisk. Click the drive that contains the folders and files you want to check.

3- Defrag often, once in two weeks.

4- Empty Recycle Bin-: Right-click on Recycle Bin icon on the Desktop and choose Empty Recycle Bin from the dropdown menu.

5- Clean out your folders-: do you really need all those download you had undertaken for a past research project or those games you seldom plays? Delete those folders that are not required.

6- Delete .tmp files and create more space on hard disk.

Close all programs. Go to Windows Explorer. Press the key to open find dialog box. Enter *.tmp in the box. Make sure that C: Drive is listed in the Look-in box. Include subfolders by checking them. When .tmp files appear, delete them.

7- Delete temporary Net files to create more space.

Go to the temp Internet Files folder in Windows Explorer. Delete all present files.

8- There are several Windows components on your hard disk that you could do without. You could remove these individual components from the Add/Remove Windows setup option and create more space on your disk

Some windows components that are not necessary are accessories such as Desktop Wallpapers (a saving of 700kB) and games (a saving of 600kB

Before you format…..

1- Enter the hard drive’s technical specifications (number of cylinders, tracks, sectors etc.) into the PC’s BIOS setup table so that it is available for the machine’s Startup program.

2- Backup all your important data onto another hard disk, recordable CDs, Zip Drive, magnetic tapes or floppies. If you have a sort of backup space or are in hurry, copy only important folders. Backup your e-mail and address books too. After taking the backups, check them out to make sure that they are okay.

3- Backup any folders that you share with others over a network.

4- Keep handy the installation disks or CDs of the application software you use, such as Windows or an office suite. These will have to be re-installed after formatting.

5- Keep handy the driver disks for your printer, sound card, CD ROM driver, modem or other devices. These will have to be re-installed after formatting.

FAT Facts

When a hard disk is formatted, a File Allocation Table (FAT) is created on the disk. FAT keeps a record of the locations of all the files on the disk FAT 16 is the file allocation system used in DOS and Windows 95. FAT 32 file system is used in Windows 98 or Win 95 OSR 2. FAT 32 is considered to be more efficient as it saves more space on the disk.

The performance of hard disk largely affects the overall performance of a PC. Hard disk performance factors include storage capacity, data access time (the time it takes for the read write heads to find a required position on the magnetic surface), data transfer time (measure how many million bit per second can be transferred from disk to RAM) and reliability.

TIP

Keep your hard disk in tip-top condition and optimize its performance.

1- Create separate folders for each business application, data or for each family member. This will keep your disk clean and organized.

2- Avoid the compression

Though file compression increases the amount of storage space, it also considerably slowdown system performance.

3- Keep 10% free. Always keep at least 10% of your hard disk free-filling it beyond 90% of its capacity will lead to system slowdown and potential loss of information.

4- Run the Maintenance Wizard utility of Windows 95 and 98. This utility make your programs run faster, checks your hard disk for problems and free hard disk space. You can schedule it to0 run on a regular basis at a specific time, for example once a week or other interval of your choice.

Start maintenance Wizard by clicking on Start, choose Programs, choose Accessories, choose system tools and click on Maintenance Wizard.

5- Use software package that help to optimize your hard disk’s performance, e.g. Symantec’s Norton Utilities.

About The Author

Pawan Bangar,
Technical Director,
Birbals,
(Hbirbals,Seobirbals,Ebirbals,Ibirbals)
Cell:91-175-3150734
Cell:+91-98153-52253

email: pawan@ebirbals.com

Yahoo Messenger:pawanishappy@yahoo.com
MSN messenger:ebirbals@hotmail.com

Perhaps the biggest mistake people make when building their computer(s) is to underestimate the importance of the hard disk drive (HDD). In our modern society, bigger is synonymous with better, so when you go to buy a hard drive you look at how "big" it is, its data capacity. But is that all you should be considering when buying your hard drive?

Like every other component of your computer, the HDD is far too complex a system to describe in any sort of detail here, but hopefully by the end of this article you will know what to look for when you go to buy your new hard drive.

There are 4 primary aspects to look at in a hard drive (in order of importance):

1. Rotational frequency and average seek time
2. Buffer size
3. Internal/external transfer rates
4. Capacity

Rotational frequency has become a large selling point (5400/7200/10000/15000RPM) recently, so you shouldn’t have too much difficulty finding out what the rotational frequency of your HDD is when you go to buy it. Now of course the faster it spins, the faster it can read from the disk (there are other advantages also), but be aware that the faster it spins, the more wear is put on the drive, and the more likely it is to encounter errors and malfunctions later in life. Hard drives are pretty much the only systems within your computer that have moving parts (CD-ROM, floppy disk drives, and fans also have moving parts, but they’re all cheap and if they break you won’t lose all the data you’ve accumulated over the course of owning your computer, be sure to back up your data regularly!).

If you know anything about physics or engineering, then you know that moving parts produce friction and wear, and a faster spinning platter (the part that holds the data and spins) means more friction, and therefore more wear on your drive. Of course the faster it spins the faster it can read data from the platter. So what can you do? well again you backup your data as much as possible and you get the fastest spinning drive money can buy (which is 7200RPM for ATA devices (the sort you are buying) and 15000RPM for SCSI and some Serial ATA devices (you might get Serial ATA, that depends on your motherboard)). So look for a "7200RPM" label on the drive you’re thinking of getting, it’s important!

The "buffer" I’m referring to is the transfer buffer that temporarily stores data to read from or write to the hard drive. The reason for this is that the bus (data channel between the hard drive and the motherboard) can only handle so much information at a time, and it takes a long time for the data to be found and retrieved from a platter (random seek time), so it takes a big chunk of the requested data and stores it in a very fast data buffer to be sent at the bus’s convenience. So with a larger buffer you can queue more data for transfer over the bus without having to keep sending requests to slowly find more data from the platters. Some newer drives come with as much as 8MB of buffer capacity, but it is more common to see 2 or 4MB. Usually a drive with a large amount will use that as a selling point and print it on the box/website, otherwise you can assume it has a 2/4MB buffer. My advice is to find one with as much as you can afford.

Now for the transfer rates you’re going to need to do some searching, the best way to find these numbers is to go to the manufacturer’s website and look at specification sheet for the model you’re looking to buy (actually this is the best way to get all the information I’ve talked about so far). One thing to look out for is that you may read something that says 133MB/s or ATA/133 or SATA150 or 150MB/s, and these are not the numbers you are looking for, those numbers describe the bus connecting the hard drive to the motherboard, and are theoretical peak numbers, which tell us virtually nothing. Also, if you are buying a Maxtor, don’t bother looking up actual transfer rates, as Maxtor is apparently afraid to release such information. Not to say Maxtor’s are bad drives, actually Maxtor has risen to the top in terms of technical support and they are much more willing to replace broken drives than some other companies, which is important since some ridiculously large amount (something like 10 or 15%) of hard drives are either dead on arrival or die within the first few weeks of use. As with the last two points, when looking at transfer speeds (if you can find them) always try to pick the one with the highest numbers you can afford.

Notice that the first three of the 4 major aspects were all speed related? That was done intentionally to give you a sense of the importance of speed in the hard drive, because they are very very slow creatures, and for your gaming experience you don’t need an enormous hard drive so much as a fast one. To increase speed substantially more you can set up a RAID, which is a network of hard drives which (in RAID0 mode) share portions of the same data, such that accessing data takes 1/n time (n = number of hard drives attached) compared to 1 hard drive. To do this you really need a hardware RAID chipset, which are commonly included on higher-end mainboards.

Finally, capacity is an unnecessary nicety. The smallest hard drives you can buy today that are still within those higher speed classes are all about 30GB, which is more than enough for your games. But since games are not everything, and if you happen to be an iTunes member or like to download anime then you will really want some extra space. So I would recommend getting something between 60 and 120GB, any more and you’re going to be paying through your teeth, any less and you might be looking to buy a supplementary hard drive in a couple years. And, oh yeah, 300GB hard drives from Maxtor are out, but they are comparatively slow, so I wouldn’t recommend getting one for gaming, I like to stick to single platter drives (40-100GB usually), as they produce less heat and are less likely to break down on me.

That is really all you need to know in order to make a good choice when upgrading your hard drive or buying one for a new computer. Of course there are many other resources on the web if you would like more detail on the inner working of hard drives.

About The Author

J A Carpunky http://www.computer-gaming-system.com - visit our website for further information.

If you run a small business, chances are you’re saving important files to a server. But what happens when disaster strikes? How are you ensuring that your files won’t be lost? Many people fail to realize that the loss of files could cripple their business. You can insure your office and equipment, but you can’t insure files. You can’t repair or buy back lost files. Ipso facto, they are lost!

This brings us to the concept of disaster recovery. What is disaster recovery? If you’re thinking that disaster recovery is about frantically trying to get back data that’s already been lost, then you’re already behind the 8-ball! Disaster recovery is about safeguarding your organization’s data so that it can be safely restored in event of a crippling disaster. And having an industry-standard file backup strategy is undoubtedly the most important part of disaster recovery.

What you have to do is ensure that all files on the server are backed up to another storage medium — tape, removable hard disk, NAS device, and so on. Most businesses choose to use tape. Let’s look at how you can set up a tape backup strategy for your own business.

1. Tape — the perfect backup medium

Isn’t tape an anachronism in the age of optical disks, removable hard drives and a plethora of whiz-bang, random-access storage media? Tape is indeed a dinosaur in relative terms, but it’s ideal for backup. Tape is slow, but can store a lot of data… one mid-range tape should be enough to backup your entire server. Plus, tape is extremely cheap — mid-range tapes cost around $20 each.

2. When should you backup?

Typically, tape backup is performed at the end of each day. Just put in the tape and let the backup process run overnight. If your server ever suffers a catastrophic disaster, you have at least saved all your files from the previous day.

3. Tape Rotation

The ideal tape backup solution would involve using a new tape for each backup. This means purchasing a new tape for every day of your business’s operations. This is hardly cost-effective for your business. Tape is cheap, but not that cheap!

This is why we speak of tape rotation. Tape rotation means to reuse tapes from previous backups. The simplest tape rotation scheme is to have one tape for each day of the working week. Tapes are labelled Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday and Friday.

You can restore data from any one of the tapes in your library, or in this case, any day in the past the week. This strategy requires only five tapes, but only provides one week’s data backup history.

4. Grandfather-Father-Son — A Case Study

The grandfather-father-son schedule is the most widely used method, and involves backing up data in the following way:

* daily — on the "son tapes"
* weekly –- on the "father tapes"
* monthly -– on the "grandfather tapes"

This system is far more powerful than the five-tape rotation, but requires more tapes.

This strategy provides you with the ability to restore data from the last week, plus any Monday over the last month, plus any month for as many monthly tapes as you have. Variations on this scheme are available, and provide a trade-off between the number of tapes required, and the number of monthly tapes available.

5. Different types of backup

Different types of backups are available in backup software.

* Full — all files, system data
* Differential — all files added or changed since the last full backup
* Incremental — all files added or changed since the last full, differential or incremental backup
* Daily — all files added or changed on the day of the backup

A Full backup will copy all files and system data to the backup media. It allows for the complete restore of all data from one single tape.

Differential, Incremental and Daily are partial backups are designed to reduce amount of data backed-up to the media, resulting in faster backups. To restore data using one of these backups, the last Full backup tape will also be required, along with any other partial backups since the last Full backup.

6. Tape backup software

At this point you may be thinking that performing tape backup is a complex task. Tape rotations, incremental backups… sure, you can try to do this manually, but this would make the backup process hiddeously difficult and prone to human error! The solution is to invest in a good piece of server backup software that will manage and schedule your tape backups for you.

What should you look for in tape backup software? For many small business owners, the price is crucial. Many brands of backup software are just too expensive — in the $1000+ range — and contain features that you’ll never need. Look for a backup utility that’s designed specially for small business instead. It should be simple-to-use, reliable and affordable. Choose a good tape backup software and you’ll be well on your way to safeguarding your files and data.

Linus Chang is a backup expert and the lead developer of BackupAssist– backup software that is simple and affordable, and perfect for small and medium businesses. Protect your Windows servers, including SQL Server and Exchange Server, to tape, REV drive, hard drive, NAS and more, at a fraction of the cost of other backup programs. Designed as a fix for NTBackup bugs and issues.

Contrary to popular belief, tape drives are generally robust and reliable. However, there are three common mistakes that people make that dramatically increase the probability of tape drive failure.

Firstly, it is not well known that tape drives is differ considerably in terms of how long they are designed to operate each day. Each tape drive range has a specified duty cycle, which is the maximum percentage of time that the drive should be operational. For example, a drive with a duty cycle of 50% should be operational for no more than 12 hours a day, while a drive with a duty cycle of 100% may run continuously.

Secondly, it is not well known that data must be supplied to tape drives at a sufficient rate in order to keep them streaming, or else the tape suffers from start-stop motion. It’s easy to imagine the wear-and-tear this places on the tape, and how the integrity of the data stored on the tape can be severely degraded.

Thirdly, poor handling and storage commonly causes damage to tapes and the drive. It’s not a good idea to drop tapes or stack them in a pyramid on the floor; the tapes should be handled and stored carefully. Tape drives should be kept as far away from contaminants as possible; for example, they shouldn’t be placed directly on the carpet or kept in dusty environments.

Tapes should always be stored in a different location to the server, in order to prevent a disaster that damages the server from also damaging the backups on tape. At the very least, weekly tapes should be stored offsite. To reduce the chance of fire damage or theft, tapes should be stored in a fireproof safe.

By following these simple tips, your tape backups should run reliably, and you’ll avoid the costly exercise of replacing your tape drive.

Linus Chang is a backup expert and the lead developer of BackupAssist — tape backup software that is simple and affordable, and perfect for small and medium businesses. Protect your Windows servers, including SQL Server and Exchange Server, to tape, REV drive, hard drive, NAS and more, at a fraction of the cost of other backup software.

We all know that we should back up our system as soon as possible. But if you’re like most of us, you will get to it tomorrow. The problem is that tomorrow rarely ever comes until you experience a serious computer failure and then it’s too late.

Taking the time to backup your data or entire hard drive is not as painstaking as it may seem. And the rewards of doing so will be great should your system experience a crash.

WINDOWS AND OTHER BACKUP SOFTWARE

If you have Windows XP you will need to install the new Windows backup utility from the Windows XP cdrom. Just place the WinXP cdrom in your cdrom drive and locate the line D:VALEADDMSFTNTBACKUP.

Here you see the first letter as D but if your optical drive has a different drive letter, exchange the D with your drive’s letter. To install the utility, click on the file named NTBackup.msi.

The backup utility will be installed to the system tools group. Click Start, All Programs, Accessories, System Tools, and Backup. There is a neat wizard that will walk you through the backup process.

WinXP’s backup utility will backup your entire hard drive and will make a recovery disk to boot.

One neat third party backup software you can try is NewTech InfoSystems at http://www.ntius.com where you can download their trial version and put it to use for 30 days. And if it’s your cup of tea, the full version will run you about $79.95

INCREMENTAL OR DIFFERENTIAL BACKUPS

You should back up your entire hard drive when you perform your first backup. After that it is best to perform an Incremental backup. This type of backup only allows you to backup files that have changed since your last performed backup.

Differential Backups copy changed files that have been added since you last did your entire backup. This type of backup is more detailed than incremental backups and is easier to restore.

BACKUP STORAGE DEVICES

You can backup your files on cdroms and have the files compressed to save both space and backup time. WinXP will compress folders, subfolders, and files during backup.

You can purchase compression software that will do the same, saving you cdrom storage space. The compressed files are automatically uncompressed once they are restored onto your hard drive.

You can also use a second hard drive as your backup storage device. We use two backup hard drives to be certain Ultimate PC Repair is up and running 24/7.

You can either purchase an internal hard drive and install it to your ide cable, or you may want to purchase an external hard drive that connects to your Universal Serial Bus or USB Port.

The advantage of the external drives is that they have very large amounts of storage space, transfer data fast, and can be moved from your computer to any other computer.

We use the Western Digital 170 Gigabyte External Hard Drive and we simply bounce it around to either one of our four computers with the greatest of ease.

USING ONLINE BACKUP SERVICES

You may also consider online services for backing up your data. If you lose all your backup data, say due to a natural disaster such as a flood, your online data is right there waiting for you.

Another advantage of online backups is that you can access, upload, or download your data from any location. It is best to use high speed internet access if you’re considering online data storage.

One such online backup service is Istorage located at http://www.iomega.com/istorage and charges from $2.49 a month for 50MBs to $17.95 a month for a big 1,000MBs of storage.

Or you can check out FilesAnywhere located at the url http://www.filesanywhere.com

Still another online service to try is CapSure located at http://www.capsure.com

Backup your system now in one way or another if you have not done so. If you have critical data that you simply cannot do without, take the time to invest in a backup device or one of the many online backup services.

Stop and perform those backups as soon as possible. You will be thankful you did should something go wrong with your computer. It’s always better to be safe than sorry.

About The Author

Otis F. Cooper is the author of the award winning PC Super Pack, the Computer Training By Video course. For hundreds more free PC repair tips, sign up for his bi-monthly newsletter and learn the PC free at http://www.ultimatepcrepair.com

It is extremely important not to make or write any changes to data on the hard drive without first verifying the hard drive configuration. Therefore, the first priority when unable to access information on a hard drive is to verify all of the configuration information dealing with the suspect hard drive.

Partition Parameter
Value or Equation

Partition Status
Bootable

Starting Head
1

Starting Sector
1

Starting Cylinder
0

Partition Type
Bigdos (drives greater than 30 MB), otherwise DOS 12

Ending Head
Total Number of Heads -1

Ending Sector
Sectors per Track displayed in Volume Boot Sector

Ending Cylinder
Number of Cylinders set in CMOS - 2

Total # of Sectors
Number of Sectors displayed in Volume Boot Sector

Start Absolute Sector
Number of Sectors per Track in Volume Boot Sector

Boot Signature
55AA

Step One: Make sure that Micro-Scope detects the hard drive

In Micro-Scope, System Configuration, Compare Settings - check to make sure that there is not an asterisk beside the number of hard drives detected value. If there is an asterisk, either the CMOS is set incorrectly, or there is an electronic problem (controller, cable, drive).

Step Two: Compare the BIOS parameters against the drive partition information.

In Micro-Scope, System Configuration, System Information - note the information displayed for the hard drive, specifically the parameters for the drive in question. Compare these parameters to the parameters in the MBR display under Micro-Scope, System Configuration, Partition Display using the following formula:

System Information
Master Boot Record

Cylinders
Ending Cylinder + 2

Heads
Ending Head + 1

Sectors
Sectors Per Track

If the information does not match, either the partition information is corrupt, or the CMOS setup or controller BIOS setup (if one exists) is incorrect, or there is a problem communicating with the drive.

Step Three: Check the drive functionality

In Micro-Scope, Diagnostics, Fixed Disk Tests - check the information in the Fixed Disk Selected window. Make sure that the proper drive type, model, and native parameters are showing in this window. If any of the information is incorrect, there is an electronic problem. Check the cable, controller and drive, re-seating all connections, and repeat the above procedure. After correcting the electronic problem, perform a read test on the first 10 cylinders of the drive. If any errors occur, then this is the most likely cause of the drive failure. Perform a read of the entire drive to determine if the errors are electronic in nature, or physical in nature. Electronic problems will result in the errors displayed not always being the same type or in the same location on the drive. If the problem is electronic, replace the cable, controller, and finally drive electronics and repeat the read test until no errors occur. If the error is physical, use an INT 13 type editor (such as Norton Advanced Editor), to block the entire drive and write the information to a daisy chained drive set to the same parameters as the faulty drive.

The next step, after the drive passes the read test on the first 10 cylinders, is to check the original partition setup of the drive.

Step Four: Check for the physical location of the master boot sector and the volume boot sector.

In Micro-Scope, Utilities, Fixed Disk Editor - use the FIND feature to search the last two bytes of each cylinder for a boot signature (55 AA). The first location where a boot signature should be found would be at cylinder 0, head 0, sector 1 (the master boot sector). The second location where a boot signature should be found is at cylinder 0, head 1, sector 1 (the volume boot sector). It is also possible to use the FIND feature to locate the volume boot sector by searching for MSDOS (in DOS based systems) or MSWIN (in Windows95 systems).

If there is a duplicate copy of the master boot sector found before the location of the volume boot sector, then it is possible that a boot virus has infected the hard drive in the system. The Rebuild Master Boot feature of Micro-Scope will eliminate any boot sector virus. Be sure to boot the system to the Micro-Scope diskette and immediately do a cold reboot of the system after using the Rebuild Master Boot feature.

If the volume boot sector is found in a location other than cylinder 0, head 1, sector 1, count the actual number of sectors before the volume boot sector, and compare that value to the value for the sectors per track displayed in the partition table described in step 2. If the values match, the most likely cause of the system failure is an incorrect CMOS setup. In this case the CMOS needs to be reset to the values indicated by the partition table described in step 2, remembering to use the formula described in step 2 when doing so. If the values do not match, set the CMOS Sectors Per track to the number of sectors counted before the volume boot sector and continue to the next step.

Step Five: Check the partition tables to make sure they are correct

Reboot the system to Micro-Scope and go to System Configuration, Partition Tables. Check the information displayed in the master boot record to see if there is any obvious corruption (that is, excessively large numbers, all partitions non-bootable, etc.) If there is no obvious corruption in the master boot record, then perform step 2 again. If the information matches at this point, go to step 6. If the information does not match, then set the sectors per track in the Master Boot Record to the number of sectors per track currently set in CMOS, set the starting head to 1, starting sector to 1, and starting cylinder to 0, and write the information to the drive.

Step Six: Verify the Master Boot Sector information

Display the Volume Boot Sector and use the values for heads and sectors per track (on the right half of the screen) to perform step 2 again.

If the values match, then the volume boot sector is probably okay. If any values in the Master Boot Record do not match the table to the right, reset the values to match the values in the table, and write to the drive.

If the values still do not match, both the Master Boot Record and the Volume Boot Record are probably corrupt. At this point, e-mail Technical Support for help in this situation. Future articles will provide more insight into the repair procedure.

Step Seven: Check the FATs

Check to see if the first FAT starts on the sector just beyond the volume boot sector. Use the find feature in the Fixed Disk Editor to search for F8 FF FF in the first three bytes of each sector. The first occurrence should be on sector two of head one. Continue to search until the second FAT is found, indicated by the second occurrence of F8 FF FF. Note the location of the cylinder, head and sector of the second FAT.

Based on the start of the second FAT, and the start of the first FAT, calculate how many sectors are in the first FAT. If necessary, read each sector starting at the first sector of the first FAT, keeping a count of the sectors that have been read until F8 FF FF is seen in the upper left of the HEX display, which would indicate the start of the second FAT. After calculating the sectors per FAT, compare this value to the value in the volume boot sector. If the values match, the drive should be accessible through DOS at this point.

Step Eight: Attempt to access the drive

Boot to a DOS-bootable floppy diskette and attempt to access the drive. If the root directory and sub-directories on the hard drive are readable at this point, then attempt to boot to the drive. If the drive boots at this point, the problem has been corrected. If the drive is still not bootable, e-mail the Micro 2000 Technical Support department for help.

Disclaimer - The Micro 2000 Tech Tip is a free service providing information only. While we use reasonable care to see that this information is correct, we do not guarantee it for accuracy, completeness or fitness for a particular purpose. Micro 2000, Inc. shall not be liable for damages of any kind in connection with the use or misuse of this information.

Micro 2000 Inc has been helping to solve the day-to-day challenges that IT departments face in order to keep their businesses operational as well as profitable for over 14 years. The company’s primary goal is to put the customer first - through feature-rich, simple-to-use IT tools that can help IT administrators manage their jobs more effectively.

For more advice and free articles be sure to visit: http://www.micro2000.co.uk

How Long Will a CD or DVD Last?

As with any backup medium (floppy disk, tape, CDROM, etc.) the lifetime of the data is an important consideration. Kodak has done extensive accelerated aging tests which indicate that their Infoguard CD-R should last 200 years. TDK say that their discs will last "about 100 years". Others tell horror stories that no-name CDs which they have burned are no longer readable after a few months.

Optical disk manufacturers advise that storing your backup disks in a cool, dry environment will help to prolong data life, while direct sunlight and fingerprints may cause damage to a CD or DVD. A good rule of thumb (no pun intended) seems to be to buy a brand-name disk, treat it as per the guidelines above, but don’t expect it to last more than five years.

But even if your CDROM data remains intact for 50 years, will we still have CD and DVD readers commonly available then? Technology changes rapidly. When was the last time you saw a computer with a 5.25 inch floppy drive? Even the 3.5 inch floppy is an endangered species, now that most computers are sold without them. In a few decades, the CDROM may be outmoded.

I suggest you revisit your backup strategy every few years, and re-copy all critical data to new media on the same basis. Now that portable USB flash drives are getting cheaper, you might consider using them instead of optical disks.

Repairing a Damaged CD-ROM

Even if you’re careful, CDs can get scratched and become unreliable or unreadable. A few years ago, I read about the Toothpaste Cure. It sounds a bit hokey, but I can tell you it has brought some CDROM disks back to life when I thought they were goners. Here’s how it works:

First clean the disk with warm water and mild soap to remove any oils from fingerprints or other sources. Dry it with a clean, lint-free towel and see if the disk will work now. If not, bring on the Crest!

Rub the disk gently with toothpaste (the pasty kind, not a gel) in a RADIAL (not circular) motion from the center of the disk to the outside edge. Wash and dry it again and see if it’s readable.

Some people report success when using car polish, silver polish, or Rain-X instead of toothpaste. The idea is that small scratches are buffed out, and some of the polishing agent remains on the disk to fill in any irregularities on the optical surface. Due to the chance that the filler may fall out over time and gum up your CDROM drive, you should make a copy of the repaired disk and discard the original.

It doesn’t always work, but it’s worth a try when the only alternative is to throw away the disk. Some commercial products that may be useful are Wipe Out! and Discwasher.

Reprinted from: http://www.askbobrankin.com/lifetime_of_a_cdrom_disk.html

BOB RANKIN… is a tech writer and computer programmer who enjoys exploring the Internet and sharing the fruit of his experience with others. His work has appeared in ComputerWorld, NetGuide, and NY Newsday. Bob is publisher of the Internet TOURBUS newsletter, author of several computer books, and creator of the http://LowfatLinux.com website. Visit Bob Rankin’s website for more helpful articles and free tech support.